Cocaine consumption has never been as high as it is today. The ‘Ndrangheta has been a key player in the transnational cocaine trade for decades. Mafianeindanke spoke with Sarah David of the German Society for International Cooperation (GIZ) about recent progress and the concept of alternative development as a strategy against illegal drugs. Sarah David leads the “Global Partnership on Drug Policy and Development” (GPDPD) project for GIZ and previously spoke at the 2023 Antimafia Seminar about the impact of cocaine production on small-scale farmers in South America.
Mnd: Last month (March 2026, Ed.) the 69th session of the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs took place. What were the key takeaways from the event?
GIZ: The UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs is, for us, the central body at the international level where drug policy is discussed. Member states come together to discuss approaches to drug policy and adopt resolutions. This year was particularly important for us due to the adoption of a resolution introduced by Germany together with Thailand and Peru. It focused on the topic of alternative development, that is, a development-oriented approach to drug policy. We regularly strive to institutionalize the topic of alternative development at the international level through these resolutions and to further develop the normative approach. This year, the focus was specifically on further developing the United Nations Guiding Principles on Alternative Development (2013) through an amendment—that is, adapting existing international guidelines to current developments in drug policy, since these were adopted in 2013 within a very different context. Much has changed in drug policy since then; an increasing number of countries are implementing alternative development. That is why it was necessary to adapt these guidelines—to give greater consideration to aspects such as human rights, gender, and environmental issues. Through these resolutions, we have succeeded in embedding a stronger focus on holistic and territorial approaches in the field of alternative development—and, more broadly, in drug policy as a whole—thereby bringing the structural causes underlying illegal drug economies more into focus. In the context of cocaine, this specifically concerns smallholder farmers involved in the cultivation of the coca plant.
Mnd: You’ve already mentioned international drug policy processes. What developments are currently taking place there, and what hurdles are we facing?
GIZ: In recent years, it has also become clear at the international level that drug policy is increasingly focused on integrated approaches, simply because the situation surrounding cultivation, production, trade, and consumption has become so much more complex. Conversely, this also means that aspects such as development, health, and human rights have become more firmly anchored in international processes. It also means that addressing the structural causes I just mentioned is gaining greater recognition, and that there is more room overall for evidence-based and innovative approaches.
But of course, we are confronted with a highly polarized world influenced by geopolitical developments. There are still many countries that rely heavily on repressive approaches, and this polarization sometimes hinders progress. In addition, market mechanisms have become very complex, and it is sometimes difficult to keep pace with them. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) publishes the World Drug Report annually, featuring current figures on production, consumption, and other data. The 2025 report shows that the production, seizure, and consumption of cocaine reached new highs in 2023, making cocaine the world’s largest and fastest-growing market for illicit drugs. This demonstrates that consumption and production are interdependent, but also highlights the difficulty of responding quickly enough to these market mechanisms.
Mnd: Despite the sometimes increasing difficulties arising from this complex market: What achievements can be cited, and how can they be defined and measured?
GIZ: Our main objective as a global partnership for drug policy and development is to establish alternative development at the global level and to advise countries in this area. For us, one of the greatest achievements is that the concept of alternative development is now firmly anchored in the international regulatory framework and is no longer viewed merely as a niche topic. There are now many countries that apply development-oriented approaches not only in rural but also in urban contexts. This is reflected, among other things, in the UN Guiding Principles on Alternative Development—the guidelines we updated with this year’s resolution. Another important area is environmental protection and the recognition that illicit drug economies also have an impact on biodiversity. A lot has changed in this area in recent years. There are several resolutions stipulating that drug policy must include measures that protect the environment and promote biodiversity, rather than causing additional damage—which is relevant, for example, in the production of synthetic drugs or the destruction of drugs.
Mnd: How exactly might such a measure to safeguard biodiversity or protect the environment be implemented?
GIZ: We observe that in some of our partner countries, the cultivation of drug crops is increasingly taking place in nature reserves. This leads to deforestation, soil degradation due to monocultures, and other illegal activities, such as illegal logging. An alternative development project in such a protected area or in a territory where indigenous or Afro-Colombian communities live must take human rights into account and always act in agreement with the communities. It’s about close dialogue and identifying potential alternative sources of income. There are various possibilities: ecotourism, handicrafts, depending on what the community specializes in. Many of these communities take good care of the territory where they live and are committed to ensuring it is protected. There are also so-called payments for ecosystem services—programs that compensate communities for protecting a water source, engaging in reforestation, or making other contributions to biodiversity and environmental conservation. This can serve as a complementary source of income.
Mnd: And who monitors these things?
GIZ: That depends very much on who is implementing the project. Ideally, it is a consortium of various ministries or agencies in the respective country. The integrated approach is a cornerstone of alternative development—many stakeholders must come together and act in concert. When the private sector is involved, there is the option of working with certifications. When international organizations or development cooperation are involved, regular evaluations are conducted to measure success.
Mnd: I’d like to move on to the topic of human rights violations. What human rights violations are known to occur along the supply chain? What trends can be observed, and how closely is the supply chain intertwined with human rights considerations?
GIZ: Drug economies are structurally very closely linked to human rights, and this holds true along the entire supply chain. The population groups that are the weakest link in the illegal supply chain are the most marginalized. This is because they often live in regions that are far cut off from infrastructure, market access, and access to basic services such as health care and education. They usually live in extreme poverty. This makes it easier for organized crime (OC) structures to gain a foothold. There are also cases where OC replaces state functions, and cultivation and smuggling are linked to repression by these groups. Small-scale farming households are exposed to significant pressure, reprisals, and, consequently, human rights violations. There are many inequalities along the supply chain, and because this is an illegal economy, the profits are naturally greatest at the end of the supply chain. Producers do not earn much money from this; instead, they scrape by at the subsistence level. The issue of gender justice is also important, as women experience double discrimination and are, of course, exposed to other difficulties as well, such as gender-based violence. Measures must therefore be designed to address these factors and give women the opportunity to break free from this unequal situation.
“The question of how to deal with illegal economies is a political one. The responsibility lies at the political and international levels. ” – Sarah David
Mnd: We heard it mentioned earlier: cocaine consumption peaked in 2023. Generally speaking, there has been a societal increase in consumption, along with a corresponding normalization of the phenomenon. What observations have you made regarding this?
GIZ: We are primarily looking at the global impacts of increased demand. We can see from the figures that consumption is rising and that production is also rising. There is a correlation, but it is not the case that increased demand directly leads to a larger supply. The market is very dynamic; it can lead to shifts in production and smuggling routes, and organized crime groups adapt accordingly. We also see efficiency gains, for example in cultivation and production, which can naturally have consequences for the smallholder households involved. Increased demand can also contribute to worsening deforestation or security situations in these areas.
Mnd: How much influence do you attribute to education and awareness-raising approaches? What are the opportunities and scope here?
GIZ: Education is definitely a key component in reducing demand, for prevention, and for clarifying the complex interconnections underlying this economy. We do this, among other things, through online content and regularly seek to dispel myths surrounding drug economies.
So: who is involved, what actors exist along the supply chain, what is the role of small-scale farmers, how much do they really earn, and so on. The aim is to make it clear why it is important to view drug policy from many angles and that there is not just one perspective. A measurable effect on the drug market is not the goal here, but rather raising awareness.
Mnd: Even if the effects aren’t measurable: What can each and every individual do to make life a little harder for the drug economies?
GIZ: The question of how to deal with illegal economies is a political one. The responsibility lies at the political and international levels. I don’t believe this can be broken down to the individual level. But an informed approach to the issue and an informed discussion are certainly helpful, even simply to understand the context and then perhaps contribute to the debate among one’s circle of acquaintances. But the fact that these illegal economies exist stems from structural causes that cannot be directly linked to consumption.
Mnd: What else should be mentioned in conclusion?
GIZ: Above all, dialogue with partner countries is crucial in drug policy. No country can solve this alone. Because the issue is so global, constant dialogue and the search for common solutions are truly essential.
Many thanks to Sarah David for the interview! You can find out more about the Global Partnership on Drug Policy and Development at gpdpd.org .
